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Definição e significado de Nutmeg

Definição

nutmeg (n.)

1.hard aromatic seed of the nutmeg tree used as spice when grated or ground

2.East Indian tree widely cultivated in the tropics for its aromatic seed; source of two spices: nutmeg and mace

Nutmeg (n.)

1.(MeSH)A plant species in the MYRISTICACEAE family. The seed is used as a spice and used for antimicrobial and psychoactive effects. Myristicin, SAFROLE, and methyleugenol are key components.;The seed is used as a spice and used for antimicrobial and psychoactive effects.

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Merriam Webster

NutmegNut"meg (?), n. [OE. notemuge; note nut + OF. muge musk, of the same origin as E. musk; cf. OF. noix muguette nutmeg, F. noix muscade. See Nut, and Musk.] (Bot.) The kernel of the fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans), a native of the Molucca Islands, but cultivated elsewhere in the tropics.

☞ This fruit is a nearly spherical drupe, of the size of a pear, of a yellowish color without and almost white within. This opens into two nearly equal longitudinal valves, inclosing the nut surrounded by its aril, which is mace. The nutmeg is an aromatic, very grateful to the taste and smell, and much used in cookery. Other species of Myristica yield nutmegs of inferior quality.

American nutmeg, Calabash nutmeg, or Jamaica nutmeg, the fruit of a tropical shrub (Monodora Myristica). It is about the size of an orange, and contains many aromatic seeds imbedded in pulp. -- Brazilian nutmeg, the fruit of a lauraceous tree, Cryptocarya moschata. -- California nutmeg, a tree of the Yew family (Torreya Californica), growing in the Western United States, and having a seed which resembles a nutmeg in appearance, but is strongly impregnated with turpentine. -- Clove nutmeg, the Ravensara aromatica, a lauraceous tree of Madagascar. The foliage is used as a spice, but the seed is acrid and caustic. -- Jamaica nutmeg. See American nutmeg (above). -- Nutmeg bird (Zoöl.), an Indian finch (Munia punctularia). -- Nutmeg butter, a solid oil extracted from the nutmeg by expression. -- Nutmeg flower (Bot.), a ranunculaceous herb (Nigella sativa) with small black aromatic seeds, which are used medicinally and for excluding moths from furs and clothing. -- Nutmeg liver (Med.), a name applied to the liver, when, as the result of heart or lung disease, it undergoes congestion and pigmentation about the central veins of its lobules, giving it an appearance resembling that of a nutmeg. -- Nutmeg melon (Bot.), a small variety of muskmelon of a rich flavor. -- Nutmeg pigeon (Zoöl.), any one of several species of pigeons of the genus Myristicivora, native of the East Indies and Australia. The color is usually white, or cream-white, with black on the wings and tail. -- Nutmeg wood (Bot.), the wood of the Palmyra palm. -- Peruvian nutmeg, the aromatic seed of a South American tree (Laurelia sempervirens). -- Plume nutmeg (Bot.), a spicy tree of Australia (Atherosperma moschata).

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Nutmeg (n.) [MeSH]


nutmeg (n.)



nutmeg (n.)


nutmeg (n.)


Wikipedia

Nutmeg

                   
Nutmeg
Myristica fragrans
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Magnoliids
Order: Magnoliales
Family: Myristicaceae
Genus: Myristica
Gronov.
Species

See text

  Myristica fragrans tree in Goa, India
  Nutmegs on a tree in Kerala, India
  Nutmeg that can be found in Raigad
  Nutmeg seeds showing "veins"

The nutmeg tree is any of several species of trees in genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, an evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia. The nutmeg tree is important for two spices derived from the fruit: nutmeg and mace.[1]

Nutmeg is the seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and about 20 to 30 mm (0.8 to 1 in) long and 15 to 18 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) wide, and weighing between 5 and 10 g (0.2 and 0.4 oz) dried, while mace is the dried "lacy" reddish covering or aril of the seed. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, and the trees reach full production after 20 years. Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the only tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices. Several other commercial products are also produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins, and nutmeg butter (see below).

The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, native to the Banda Islands of Indonesia, is also grown in Penang Island in Malaysia and the Caribbean, especially in Grenada. It also grows in Kerala, a state in southern India. Other species of nutmeg include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and Bombay nutmeg M. malabarica from India, called jaiphal in Hindi; both are used as adulterants of M. fragrans products.

Contents

  Botany and cultivation

Nutmeg is a dioecious plant which is propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive. As there is no reliable method of determining plant sex before flowering in the sixth to eighth year, and sexual propagation bears inconsistent yields, grafting is the preferred method of propagation. Epicotyl grafting, approach grafting and patch budding have proved successful, epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative, though not preferred, method, because of its low (35-40%) success rate.

List sources :[2][3][4]

  Culinary uses

Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, saffron-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater.

In Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended (creating a fresh, green, tangy taste and white colour juice) or boiled (resulting in a much sweeter and brown juice) to make iced nutmeg juice or, as it is called in Penang Hokkien, lau hau peng.

In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet as well as savoury dishes (predominantly in Mughlai cuisine). It is known as jaiphal in most parts of India. In Kannada, nutmeg is called jaayi-kaayi/jaaipatre, jathikai (சாதிக்காய்) in Tamil and jatipatri(ജാതിപത്രി) and jathi (ജാതിക്കായ) seed in Kerala. In Telugu, nutmeg is called jaaji kaaya (జాజి కాయ) and mace is called jaapathri (జాపత్రి). It is also added in small quantities as a medicine for infants (janma ghutti). It may also be used in small quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India.[citation needed]

In Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In Arabic, nutmeg is called jawzat at-tiyb (جوزة الطيب).

In Greece and Cyprus, nutmeg is called μοσχοκάρυδο (moschokarydo) (Greek: "musky nut"), and is used in cooking and savoury dishes.

In originally European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in potato dishes and in processed meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked goods. In Dutch cuisine, nutmeg is added to vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and string beans. Nutmeg is a traditional ingredient in mulled cider, mulled wine, and eggnog.

Japanese varieties of curry powder include nutmeg as an ingredient.

In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks such as the Bushwacker, Painkiller, and Barbados rum punch. Typically, it is just a sprinkle on the top of the drink.

The pericarp (fruit/pod) is used in Grenada to make a jam called morne delice. In Indonesia, the fruit is also made into jam, called selei buah pala, or is finely sliced, cooked with sugar, and crystallised to make a fragrant candy called manisan pala (nutmeg sweets).

  Essential oils

The essential oil obtained by steam distillation of ground nutmeg is used widely in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. This volatile fraction typically contains 60-80% d-camphene by weight, as well as quantities of d-pinene, limonene, d-borneol, l-terpineol, geraniol, safrol, and myristicin.[5] The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the oleochemical industry, and is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in toothpaste, and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine, nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for disorders related to the nervous and digestive systems.

  Nutmeg butter

Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. It is semi-solid, reddish brown in colour, and tastes and smells of nutmeg. Approximately 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid, a 14-carbon fatty acid, which can be used as a replacement for cocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats like cottonseed oil or palm oil, and has applications as an industrial lubricant.

  Mace (red) within nutmeg fruit

  History

It is known to have been a prized costly spice in European medieval cuisine as a flavouring, medicinal, and preservative agent. Saint Theodore the Studite (ca. 758 – ca. 826) allowed his monks to sprinkle nutmeg on their pease pudding when required to eat it. In Elizabethan times, it was believed nutmeg could ward off the plague, so nutmeg became very popular and its price skyrocketed.[6]

The small Banda Islands were, until the mid-19th century, the world's only source of nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is noted as a very valuable commodity by Muslim sailors from the port of Basra, such as Sinbad the Sailor in the One Thousand and One Nights. Nutmeg was traded by Arabs during the Middle Ages and sold to the Venetians for very high prices, but the traders did not divulge the exact location of their source in the profitable Indian Ocean trade, and no European was able to deduce their location.

In August 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade, on behalf of the king of Portugal. In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learning of the Bandas' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512.[7] The first Europeans to reach the Bandas, the expedition remained in Banda for about a month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade.[8] The first written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires, based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. Full control of this trade by the Portuguese was not possible, and they remained participants without a foothold in the islands themselves.

The trade in nutmeg later became dominated by the Dutch in the 17th century. The English and Dutch engaged in prolonged struggles to gain control of Run Island, then the only source of nutmeg. At the end of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch gained control of Run, while England controlled New Amsterdam (New York) in North America.

The Dutch waged a bloody war, including the massacre and enslavement of the inhabitants of the island of Banda, just to control nutmeg production in the East Indies in 1621. Thereafter, the Banda Islands were run as a series of plantation estates, with the Dutch mounting annual expeditions in local war-vessels to extirpate nutmeg trees planted elsewhere.

In 1760, the price of nutmeg in London was 85 to 90 shillings per pound, a price kept artificially high by the Dutch voluntarily burning full warehouses of nutmegs in Amsterdam.

As a result of the Dutch interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars, the British took temporary control of the Banda Islands from the Dutch and transplanted nutmeg trees to their own colonial holdings elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and Grenada. The national flag of Grenada, adopted in 1974, shows a stylised split-open nutmeg fruit. The Dutch however continued to hold control of the spice islands until World War II

Connecticut gets its nickname ("the Nutmeg State", "Nutmegger") from the legend that some unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle "nutmeg" out of wood, creating a "wooden nutmeg" (a term which came to mean any fraud).[9]

  Commercial jar of mace

  World production

World production of nutmeg is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes (9,800 and 12,000 long tons; 11,000 and 13,000 short tons) per year, with annual world demand estimated at 9,000 tonnes (8,900 long tons; 9,900 short tons); production of mace is estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes (1,500 to 2,000 long tons; 1,700 to 2,200 short tons). Indonesia and Grenada dominate production and exports of both products, with world market shares of 75% and 20% respectively. Other producers include India, Malaysia (especially Penang, where the trees grow wild within untamed areas[citation needed]), Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Caribbean islands, such as St. Vincent and Grenada, which produces 20% of the world's nutmeg supply. The principal import markets are the European Community, the United States, Japan and India. Singapore and the Netherlands are major re-exporters.

  Medical research

One study has shown that the compound macelignan isolated from Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae) may exert antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans, but this is not a currently used treatment.[10]

Nutmeg has been used in medicine since at least the seventh century. In the 19th century it was used as an abortifacient, which led to numerous recorded cases of nutmeg poisoning. Although used as a folk treatment for other ailments, nutmeg has no proven medicinal value today.[11]

  Psychoactivity and toxicity

  Effects

In low doses, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response, but in large doses, raw nutmeg has psychoactive effects. In its freshly-ground (from whole nutmegs) form, nutmeg contains myristicin, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and psychoactive substance. Myristicin poisoning can induce convulsions, palpitations, nausea, eventual dehydration, and generalized body pain.[12] It is also reputed to be a strong deliriant.[13]

Fatal myristicin poisonings in humans are very rare, but two have been reported: one in an 8-year-old child[14] and another in a 55-year-old adult, the latter case attributed to a combination with flunitrazepam.[15]

In case reports raw nutmeg produced anticholinergic-like symptoms, attributed to myristicin and elemicin.[16][14][17]

In case reports intoxications with nutmeg had effects that varied from person to person, but were often reported to be an excited and confused state with headaches, nausea and dizziness, dry mouth, bloodshot eyes and memory disturbances. Nutmeg was also reported to induce hallucinogenic effects, such as visual distortions and paranoid ideation. In the reports nutmeg intoxication took several hours before maximum effect was reached. Effects and after-effects lasted up to several days.[18][12][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]

Myristicin poisoning is potentially deadly to some pets and livestock, and may be caused by culinary quantities of nutmeg harmless to humans. For this reason, it is recommended not to feed eggnog to dogs.[27]

  History of use

Peter Stafford's Psychedelics Encyclopedia quotes an 1883 report from Mumbai noting that "the Hindus of West India take nutmeg as an intoxicant", and records that the spice has been used for centuries as a form of snuff in rural eastern Indonesia and India, latter seeing the ground seed mixed with betel and other kinds of snuff. In 1829, the Czech physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje ingested three ground nutmegs with a glass of wine and recorded headaches, nausea, hallucinations and a sense of euphoria that lasted for several days.[11]

Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes and chemist Albert Hofmann, who discovered LSD, documented reports of nutmeg's use as an intoxicant by students, prisoners, sailors, alcoholics and marijuana smokers. In his autobiography, Malcolm X writes about taking nutmeg and other "semi-drugs" while serving time in prison.[11]

The Angewandte Chemie International Edition records the use of nutmeg as an intoxicant in the United States in the post-World War II period, notably among young people, bohemians, and prisoners. A 1966 New York Times piece named it along with morning glory seeds, diet aids, cleaning fluids, cough medicine, and other substances as "alternative highs" on college campuses.[11]

  Toxicity during pregnancy

Nutmeg was once considered an abortifacient, but may be safe for culinary use during pregnancy. However, it inhibits prostaglandin production and contains hallucinogens that may affect the fetus if consumed in large quantities.[28]

  See also

  • Run (island): Seventeenth-century British-Dutch rivalry for a source of the spice

  Further reading

  • Burroughs, William S. (1959). Naked Lunch. Paris: Olympia Press. p. 228.
  • Gable, R. S. (2006). The toxicity of recreational drugs. American Scientist 94: 206–208.
  • Devereux, P. (1996). Re-Visioning the Earth: A Guide to Opening the Healing Channels Between Mind and Nature. New York: Fireside. pp. 261–262.

  References

Notes
  1. ^ "nutmeg". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/422816/nutmeg. 
  2. ^ GRIN. "Species in GRIN for genus Myristica". Taxonomy for Plants. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland: USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?7923. Retrieved March 10, 2010. 
  3. ^ "Query Results for Genus Myristica". IPNI. http://www.ipni.org:80/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_genus=Myristica&find_rankToReturn=spec&output_format=normal&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch. Retrieved March 10, 2010. 
  4. ^ "Name - Myristica Gronov. subordinate taxa". Tropicos. Saint Louis, Missouri: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/NameSubordinateTaxa.aspx?nameid=40024462. Retrieved March 10, 2010. 
  5. ^ The Merck Index (1996). 12th edition
  6. ^ Milton, Giles. Nathaniel's Nutmeg p.3
  7. ^ Hannard (1991), page 7; Milton, Giles (1999). Nathaniel's Nutmeg. London: Sceptre. pp. 5 and 7. ISBN 978-0-340-69676-7. 
  8. ^ Hannard (1991), page 7
  9. ^ Connecticut State Library: Nicknames for Connecticut
  10. ^ Devi, P. B.; Ramasubramaniaraja, R. (2009). "Dental Caries and Medicinal Plants – An Overview". Journal of Pharmacy Research 2 (11): 1669–1675. ISSN 0974-6943. http://jpronline.info/article/view/906/708. 
  11. ^ a b c d Shafer, Jack (2010-12-14) Stupid drug story of the week: The nutmeg scare, Slate.com
  12. ^ a b Demetriades, A. K.; Wallman, P. D.; McGuiness, A.; Gavalas, M. C. (2005). "Low Cost, High Risk: Accidental Nutmeg Intoxication" (pdf). Emergency Medicine Journal 22 (3): 223–225. DOI:10.1136/emj.2002.004168. PMC 1726685. PMID 15735280. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1726685/pdf/v022p00223.pdf.  edit
  13. ^ "Nutmeg". Plants. Erowid. http://www.erowid.org/plants/nutmeg/. Retrieved 2012-04-22. 
  14. ^ a b Weil, Andrew (1966). "The Use of Nutmeg as a Psychotropic Agent". Bulletin on Narcotics (UNODC) 1966 (4): 15–23. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1966-01-01_4_page003.html. 
  15. ^ Stein, U.; Greyer, H.; Hentschel, H. (2001). "Nutmeg (myristicin) poisoning--report on a fatal case and a series of cases recorded by a poison information centre". Forensic Science International 118 (1): 87–90. PMID 11343860.  edit
  16. ^ Shulgin, A. T.; Sargent, T.; Naranjo, C. (1967). "The Chemistry and Psychopharmacology of Nutmeg and of Several Related Phenylisopropylamines" (pdf). Psychopharmacology Bulletin 4 (3): 13. PMID 5615546. http://bitnest.ca/external.php?id=%250E%253D9%250F%2524G%252F%2518B%255B%255B4%2522.FXQ%255CO%2500TK.  edit
  17. ^ McKenna, A.; Nordt, S. P.; Ryan, J. (2004). "Acute Nutmeg Poisoning". European Journal of Emergency Medicine 11 (4): 240–241. DOI:10.1097/01.mej.0000127649.69328.a5. PMID 15249817.  edit
  18. ^ Burroughs, William S. (1957). "Letter from a Master Addict to Dangerous Drugs". British Journal of Addiction to Alcohol & Other Drugs 53 (2): 119–132. DOI:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1957.tb05093.x.  edit
  19. ^ Quin, G. I.; Fanning, N. F.; Plunkett, P. K. (1998). "Letter: Nutmeg Intoxication" (pdf). Journal of Accident & Emergency Medicine 15 (4): 287–288. PMC 1343156. PMID 9681323. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1343156/pdf/jaccidem00025-0077e.pdf.  edit
  20. ^ Brenner, N.; Frank, O. S.; Knight, E. (1993). "Chronic Nutmeg Psychosis" (pdf). Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 86 (3): 179–180. PMC 1293919. PMID 8459391. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1293919/pdf/jrsocmed00100-0067.pdf.  edit
  21. ^ Scholefield, J. H. (1986). "Letter: Nutmeg--an Unusual Overdose" (pdf). Archives of Emergency Medicine 3 (2): 154–155. PMC 1285340. PMID 3730084. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1285340/pdf/archemed00010-0057.pdf.  edit
  22. ^ Venables, G. S.; Evered, D.; Hall, R. (1976). "Letter: Nutmeg Poisoning" (pdf). British Medical Journal 1 (6001): 96. DOI:10.1136/bmj.1.6001.96-c. PMC 1638356. PMID 942686. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1638356/pdf/brmedj00498-0050d.pdf.  edit
  23. ^ Panayotopoulos, D. J.; Chisholm, D. D. (1970). "Correspondence: Hallucinogenic Effect of Nutmeg" (pdf). British Medical Journal 1 (5698): 754. DOI:10.1136/bmj.1.5698.754-b. PMC 1699804. PMID 5440555. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1699804/pdf/brmedj02279-0080c.pdf.  edit
  24. ^ Williams, E. Y.; West, F. (1968). "The Use of Nutmeg as a Psychotropic Drug. Report of two Cases" (pdf). Journal of the National Medical Association 60 (4): 289–290. PMC 2611568. PMID 5661198. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2611568/pdf/jnma00524-0033.pdf.  edit
  25. ^ Dale, H. H. (1909). "Note on Nutmeg-Poisoning" (pdf). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 2 (Therapeutical and Pharmacological Section): 69–74. PMC 2046458. PMID 19974070. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2046458/pdf/procrsmed00831-0073.pdf.  edit
  26. ^ Cushny, A. R. (1908). "Nutmeg Poisoning" (pdf). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 1 (Therapeutical and Pharmacological Section): 39–44. PMC 2045778. PMID 19973353. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2045778/pdf/procrsmed00847-0043.pdf.  edit
  27. ^ "Don't Feed Your Dog Toxic Foods". http://www.dog-first-aid-101.com/toxic-foods.html. 
  28. ^ Herb and drug safety chart Herb and drug safety chart from BabyCentre UK
Bibliography
  • Milton, Giles (1999), Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History

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